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The Problems of Philosophy is a nonfiction book written by Bertrand Russell. Released in 1912, it serves as an introduction to philosophy.
Publisher's summary[]
With The Problems of Philosophy, Bertrand Russell made an exemplary attempt to unleash a complex subject of philosophy to the simplest of minds. To make that happen he starts with a table in his room and uses it as an analogy to explain 'what something appears to be' against 'what it is in real'. Russell has trodden the path of lecturing philosophy with the simplest possible examples. He makes us question our judgement of reality by looking into how we can be forced to perceive objects around us in a specific way. The book encourages us to use our own judgement to form our 'reality', rather than allow others to shape it for us.
Summary of ideas[]
Chapter I: Appearance and Reality[]
Russell opens the book by discussing the problem with appearances. While a table's appearance may seem to be an irrefutable subject, different observers with different methods of observation will see different versions of the same table.
Chapter II: The Existence of Matter[]
Despite the fallibility of appearances, Russell argues that matter - the basis of the appearances itself - exists rather than the universe being made up of perceptions, as other philosophers (namely Leibnitz and Berkeley) posited. Russell uses the very existence of an object, the table's ability to hold up other objects, as evidence of its existence.
Chapter III: The Nature of Matter[]
Russell then discusses the nature of matter, positing that objects exist both within real (or objective) and apparent (or subjective) spaces and that these objects, though not comprised of "sense-data", are the origins of sense-data.
Chapter IV: Idealism[]
This chapter serves as a discussion of the idealist school of thought (or the school of thought that everything in the world is nothing more than ideas). Russell attacks the idealist theory by stating that the maxim that one cannot "truly judge something with which we are not acquainted exists" is nonsense.
Chapter V: Knowledge by Acquaintance and Knowledge by Description[]
Russell describes the two different types of knowledge (of both objects and concepts): acquaintance and description. Acquaintance is anything that one knows directly, while description is anything that one knows indirectly.
Chapter VI: On Induction[]
The process of induction is discussed. While the maxim that "what has happened before, must happen again" seems to be applicable in some subjects (such as the Sun rising), it is not completely foolproof. One can only be mostly sure of these subjects.
Chapter VII: On Our Knowledge of General Principles[]
Russell then talks about the split between empiricists (who believed that all knowledge is learned) and the rationalists (who believed that some knowledge is a prioi). Here, Russell largely leans towards the rationalist viewpoint, though he does give their empiricists their due by stating that the proof of an object's existence comes from experience.
Chapter VIII: How a Priori Knowledge is Possible[]
Next, Russell gives an outline of Immanuel Kant's formulation of a priori knowledge. Before Kant, philosopher David Hume deconstructed the previously-held analytical view of a priori knowledge. Kant formulated that there were two versions of every object - one derived from the object itself, the other derived from our own experience - and that the observer supplies the spatio-temporal frame around which the object sits. Russell is critical of Kant's solution, claiming that Kant's model fails to anchor itself into the logic that it tried to make unsinkable.
Chapter IX: The World of Universals[]
Russell next outlines Plato's concepts of ideas, giving them the name "universals" to avoid confusion. Universals are the basic concepts that most words (and by extension, simple sentences) are comprised of. Universals are what comprise the real world and trump information given by the senses.
Chapter X: On Our Knowledge of Universals[]
After giving an outline of universals, Russell describes the three types of universals that one can gain knowledge of. These include knowledge by acquaintance, knowledge by desciption, and knowledge that does not fit into either.
Chapter XI: On Intuitive Knowledge[]
Russell then turns his attention to memories and their fallibility. In this effort, he places them into differing grades of reliability and quality.
Chapter XII: Truth and Falsehood[]
Next, Russell creates a foundation for truth and lies. While he does not state what makes beliefs true or false, he provides rules for a theory on the two - that it must allow their to be two options, that those options are based around beliefs and their ties to the outside world. Russell also provides a guide to what a belief is.
Chapter XIII: Knowledge, Error, and Probable Opinion[]
After discussing beliefs, Russell discusses the three categories of beliefs. These are knowlegde (or beliefs that are true), error (or beliefs that are false), or probable opinion (or beliefs which do not easily fit into either category).
Chapter XIV: The Limits of Philosophical Knowledge[]
Russell then discusses what knowledge philosophy can actually claim to piece together. In this, Russell follows the pattern of Hegel - that knowledge of every corner of the universe can be pieced together.
Chapter XV: The Value of Philosophy[]
Finally, Russell talks about the usage of philosophy in modern society. By examining the world through a philosophical lens, one can detach themselves from the close-minded view of a black and white society and become impartial.
Appearances in fiction[]
- In William Emms' novelization of the Doctor Who serial Galaxy Four, the Doctor quotes from Chapter VI of Problems.
See also[]
| Title | Author | Release date | Significance |
|---|---|---|---|
| A History of Western Philosophy | Bertrand Russell | 1947 | A nonfiction book by the same author with similar themes |
| Republic | Plato | 375 BC (approx.) | A major philosophical work by a philosopher discussed within the Problems |
| Meditations on First Philosophy | René Descartes | 1641 | A major philosophical work by a philosopher discussed within the Problems |
| Ethics | Baruch Spinoza | 1677 | A major philosophical work by a philosopher discussed within the Problems |
| The Monadology | Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz | 1714 | A major philosophical work by a philosopher discussed within the Problems |
| Three Dialogues between Hylas and Philonous | George Berkeley | 1713 | A major philosophical work by a philosopher discussed within the Problems |
| An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding | David Hume | 1748 | A major philosophical work by a philosopher discussed within the Problems |
| Prolegomena to Any Future Metaphysics That Will Be Able to Present Itself as a Science | Immanuel Kant | 1783 | A major philosophical work by a philosopher discussed within the Problems |
Sources[]
- Wikipedia
- The full text