Comedìa (or Divina Commedia, Divine Comedy, and The Divine Comedy) is a narrative poem written by Dante Alighieri. Released some time after 1321, it showcases Dante's metaphysical voyages. The Comedìa is one of the most well-known works of both Italian literature and 14th century literature.
Characters[]
- Dante Alighieri
- Virgil - Dante's mentor and guide throughout Hell
- Beatrice - Dante's beloved
Inferno[]
- Charon - the ferryman for the river Acheron
- The Beast - the ruler of Hell, an absolutely massive figure whose body pierces the Earth and whose head sits at the very bottom of Hell
- Minos - the judge of torments
- Plutus - a demon lurking in the fourth circle of Hell
- Judas, Cassius, and Brutus - three traitors constantly being gnawed upon by the Beast
- Cerberus
- Phlegyas - a boatman who ferries souls across the River Styx
- Chiron - the leader of the centaurs in the seventh circle of Hell
- The Minotaur - a beastial creature found by Dante and Virgil in the first layer of the seventh circle of Hell
- Nessus - one of the centaurs under Chiron's command
- Homer, Horace, Ovid, Lucan, Aristotle, Socrates, and Plato - unbaptised historical figures found by Dante in Limbo
- Cleopatra
- Helen of Troy
- Pope Nicholas III - a simoniac pope that Dante finds in the eighth circle
- Malacoda - the leader of the Malabranche demons
- Ciriatto - one of the Malabranche demons
- Capaneus - the king that besieged Thebes, found by Virgil and Dante in the seventh layer
- Ciacco - a Florentine man Dante meets in the third circle of Hell
- Francesca - a woman Dante meets in the second circle of Hell
- Filippo Argenti - a Florentine man with whom Dante has some iniquity
- Farinata - a political leader that Dante finds in the sixth circle of Hell
- Cavalcate de Cavalcanti - the father of Dante's friend Guido
- Pier della Vigna - an adviser to Emperor Frederick that Dante finds in the second layer of the seventh circle
- Gualdrada, Aldobrandi, and Rusticucci - three philosophers Dante finds in the third layer of the seventh circle
- Brunetto Latini - a philosopher who knew Dante in life and finds him in the third layer of the seventh circle
- Count Ugolino and Archbishop Ruggieri - two souls Dante finds in the lowest circle of Hell
rest to be added
Purgatorio[]
- Sordello - Dante and Virgil's guide through Purgatory's lower levels
- Statius - a Roman poet who guides Dante and Virgil through the middle of Purgatory
- Lucia - a Saint who carries Dante to the gates of Purgatory
- Cato - a Roman met by Dante and Virgil while approaching Purgatory
- Casella - one of Dante's friends who enters into Purgatory while he is voyaging through it
- Manfred - an excommunicated man that Dante knew in life
- Belacqua - a lazy friend of Dante's
- del Duca - a Ghibelline who enters into Purgatory as penance for his envy
- The serpent - a being that roams Purgatory trying to tempt souls, possibly the same serpent from Genesis
- The siren - a figure within a dream had by Dante
- Forese - one of Dante's old friends
- Jacopo del Cassero - a Guelph soldier who died violently
- Bonagiunta of Lucca - a drunken poet
- Guido Guinizelli - a poet doing penance for lust
- Arnaut Daniel - a troubador poet doing penance for lust
- Pope Adrian - a pope whom Dante and Virgil find in Purgatory
- Hugh Capet - an ancestor of the French kings
- Marco Lombardo - a wrathful courtier
- Buonconte de Montefeltro - a Ghibelline soldier who died violently
- La Pia - a noblewoman who was murdered by her husband
- Sapia - an envious soul found in Purgatory
- Nino - a friend of Dante's found by him in a lower layer of Purgatory
- The gryphon - a creature that pulls Beatrice's carriage
rest to be added
Paradiso[]
- Cacciaguida - one of Dante's ancestors, whom he finds on Mars
- Thomas Aquinas - a theologian found by Dante in the Sun
- The eagle - a manifestation of various just souls found by Dante in Jupiter
- Justinian - a Roman Emperor whom Dante finds on Mercury
- Piccarda dei Donati - a former nun whom Dante finds on the lowest layer of Heaven, the Moon
- Charles Martel - one of Dante's contemporaries and friends in life, found by Dante on Venus
- Cunizza da Romano - a noblewoman found by Dante on Venus
- Folco of Marseilles - a troubador found by Dante on Venus
- Albert the Great - Aquinas' teacher, found by Dante in the Sun
- Gratian - a canon lawyer found by Dante in the Sun
- St. Bonaventure - a saint found by Dante in the Sun
- Peter Lombard - a theologian found by Dante in the Sun
- King Solomon - a king found by Dante in the Sun
- Nathan - a prophet found by Dante in the Sun
- John Chrysostom - an archbishop found by Dante in the Sun
- Joachim of Fiore - a theologian found by Dante in the Sun
- St. Anselm - a saint found by Dante in the Sun
- Boethius - a philosopher found by Dante in the Sun
- King David - a Biblical whose soul is found by Dante within the eagle
- Trajan - a Roman emperor whose soul is found by Dante within the eagle
- Constanine - a Roman emperor whose soul is found by Dante within the eagle
- Peter Damian - a monk found by Dante in Saturn
- St. Benedict - a saint found by Dante in Saturn
- William of Sicily - a Sicilian king whose soul is found by Dante within the eagle
- Hezekiah - a Biblical king whose soul is found by Dante within the eagle
- Ripheus - a Trojan warrior whose soul is found by Dante within the eagle
- Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite - a theologian found by Dante in the Sun
- Orosius - a theologian found by Dante in the Sun
- Isidore of Seville - a scholar found by Dante in the Sun
- The Venerable Bede - a scholar found by Dante in the Sun
- Richard of St. Victor - a philosopher found by Dante in the Sun
- Siger of Brabant - a philosopher found by Dante in the Sun
to be added
Publisher's summary[]
This Everyman’s Library edition–containing in one volume all three cantos, Inferno, Purgatorio, and Paradiso–includes an introduction by Nobel Prize—winning poet Eugenio Montale, a chronology, notes, and a bibliography. Also included are forty-two drawings selected from Botticelli’s marvelous late-fifteenth-century series of illustrations.
Translated in this edition by Allen Mandelbaum, The Divine Comedy begins in a shadowed forest on Good Friday in the year 1300. It proceeds on a journey that, in its intense recreation of the depths and the heights of human experience, has become the key with which Western civilization has sought to unlock the mystery of its own identity.
Mandelbaum’s astonishingly Dantean translation, which captures so much of the life of the original, renders whole for us the masterpiece of that genius whom our greatest poets have recognized as a central model for all poets.
Full summary[]
Inferno[]
In the "midway" of his life, Dante awakens to find himself in a mysterious gloomy wood nearby the gates of Hell. After evading attacks from ravenous animals, Dante finds a figure who reveals himself to be the poet Virgil. He also reveals that Dante is in Hell and offers to be his guide through the metaphysical plane. As the two pass through the gates of Hell, Virgil reveals he was sent by a woman named Beatrice (Dante's beloved) from Heaven.
As the two cross through the gates, Dante sees a menacing sign saying "abandon hope all ye who enter". The two travelers first enter into "Ante-Inferno", where the souls of those who refused to make moral choices sit (for neither Heaven or Hell wants them). The two then cross the river Acheron (the border to Hell) with the help of Charon (whom Virgil convinces to take the still-living Dante across the river by saying that they were sent on their voyage by divine forces) but are caught in an earthquake which causes Dante to faint.
Dante awakens the next day to find himself sitting on the edge of the valley that is Limbo (the first circle of Hell). Lurking within Limbo are various figures who did not commit sins but were never baptized or were born before the Gospel was made. Virgil finds various writers (such as Homer, Horace, Ovid, and Lucan), philosophers (Aristotle, Socrates, and Plato), and various other historical figures living within a seven-walled castle.
The two travelers next visit the second circle of Hell, where they meet with Minos - the judge of torments. Virgil is able to convince Dante to pass through into the depths of Hell. The second circle is where the souls of the lustful lurk and are constantly beaten and blown about by harsh winds. The two see various historical figures who were undone by lust (such as Cleopatra and Helen) and the soul of a woman named Francesca who recounts the story of her love. Overcome with pity at this story, Dante faints.
Dante awakens in the third circle of Hell - a filthy diseased circle where gluttons are sent. The two travelers are briefly stopped by Cerberus before Virgil is able to get the beast to leave. While walking through the third circle, Dante is accosted by a soul who reveals itself to be a Florentine man named Ciacco. The two briefly speak of Florence before the two leave for the fourth circle.
Once in the fourth circle (the domain of the Avaricious and the Prodigal, the corrupt, the greedy, and the squanderers - who have been made unrecognizable by the torments that they withstand in this circle) the two travelers are accosted by a demon named Plutus. After sending this demon away, the two travelers begin their exploration of the fourth circle. They find the Avaricious and the Prodigal eternally pushing weights around in a ditch. After discussing how both parties ended up in hell, the two depart for the fifth circle, which the River Styx runs through. Sitting on the bank are the Wrathful (who constantly fight amongst themselves) and lurking within the depths of the river are the Sullen.
To cross the River Styx, the two travelers hire the services of a boatman named Phlegyas. While crossing the River, Dante sees one of his enemies being torn apart by other sinners around him. Soon, the travelers approach the city of Dis. While approaching the gates of the city, Virgil tries to explain Dante's presence to the fallen angels guarding the city but they refuse to listen to the poet and slam the gates of Dis in his face. Though Dante is extremely worried by this, Virgil is not worried. The two travelers are soon found by three Furies who try to get Medusa to attack them. Before this can happen, a messenger from Heaven descends and opens the gates to Dis for Virgil and Dante. With these gates opened, the two travelers enter into the sixth circle of Hell.
The sixth circle is the domain of the Heretics, who sit within tombs surrounded by flames. While discussing the sins of the Epicureans with Dante, Virgil is called by a political leader named Farinata whom Dante is pressed to speak with by Virgil. The two talk before being interrupted by the father of one of Dante's friends who asks why this friend is not with the two travelers. Though Dante explains that he held someone close to him (possibly Virgil, but also possibly his beloved or even God - scholars debate this topic to this day), the father misreads what Dante means and despairs over his son's death. From his discussion on politics with Farinata, Dante deduces that the souls of Heretics cannot view the present but can peer into the future. This means that Farinata can see Dante being exiled from Florence but knows nothing of the present day. With this, Dante departs with Virgil from the sixth circle of Hell.
As the two travelers enter into the seventh circle, they are assaulted by a vile smell which forces them to visit the tomb of Pope Anastasius to adjust. While in the tomb, Virgil reveals that the seventh circle (and the two circles that follow it) are split in three parts, each one representing a different type of violence (against others, against the self, and against God). Virgil also reveals that the following two circles punish the crimes of fraud and betrayal respectively. To explain why each of these circles are split into three layers, Virgil quotes the Nicomachean Ethics.
With this out of the way, the travelers move into the first layer of the seventh circle and first pass through a ravine. Almost immediately after arriving in the layer, the travelers are attacked by the beastly Minotaur but are able to slip past him. Once out of the ravine, the travelers find the river of boiling blood which those who were violent towards their neighbors (in the Biblical sense) lurk. They are soon found by a group of centaurs (who shoot the tormented souls that manage to escape the river with bows and arrows) and are nearly shot before the head centaur Chiron notices that Dante is a living man. Under orders from Virgil, Chiron lets the two travelers ride through the treacherous grounds of the seventh circle on the back of a centaur named Nessus. While travelling with Dante and Virgil through the first layer, Nessus reveals that various tyrants (such as Alexander the Great, Attila the Hun, and Dionysus) that caused torment to entire populations lurk in the deepest parts of the river. Soon, Nessus leaves the travelers' company as they enter the second layer.
The second layer is a gloomy forest filled with gnarled, deformed, and almost shadow-like trees filled with the cries of unseen tormented souls. While walking past these trees, Virgil has Dante break one of the limbs of the tree - which promptly bleeds. It is revealed that the trees are actually the souls of those who committed violence against themselves (either by committing suicide or squandering their potential). With this revealed, Virgil has the tree introduce itself - revealing that it was an adviser to Emperor Frederick who killed himself due to false rumors spread by scheming courtiers. This adviser also reveals the life-cycle of the trees (put into the ground as saplings by Minos, they are pecked at by the Harpies and their bodies (which they rejected in life) are pierced on the branches of their new forms). Shortly after this is revealed, the two travelers notice two other men running from vicious dogs through the forest. One of the men is torn to pieces by the dogs after jumping into a bush. This bush is actually a soul, which reveals that it was a Florentine who was unhappy that his city changed it patron from Mars to St. John the Baptist and hung himself. After returning the bush's scattered leaves to it, Dante departs with Virgil from the second layer.
The third layer is a blazing hot desert of red sands where small fires fall from the sky. This layer is split into three separate smaller layers, with the first being for those who have committed blasphemy - who are forced to lie on the sand as the fire rains down on them and cooks the sand around them. While wandering through the desert, the two travelers find the gigantic figure of Capaneus, who refuses to let the fires of Hell ever change his or break his defiance. After this meeting with Capaneus, the two travelers come to another blood-red river. According to Virgil, this river (and all the other rivers in Hell) are fed by the tears of a statue in the island of Crete.
The second layer of the third layer of the seventh circle of Hell is where those who have gone against God's natural laws are forced to walk through the rains of fire forevermore. While looking over these souls, Dante is recognized by one of these souls and begins walking with him. This soul claims that Dante will be remembered for his heroic politics but Dante refuses to accept this honor. After this discussion, Dante and Virgil are found by three extremely charred souls who also recognize Dante and ask if they are recognized for their courteous and virtuous deeds are remembered in Florence but Dante says that they are only remembered for their arrogance and excess. While leaving the second layer of the third layer, Virgil takes off Dante's belt and throws it into a nearby ravine filled with dark water. This causes a massive creature with the the face of a man, the body of a serpent, and two hairy paws to emerge from the depths of the ravine.
While Virgil speaks with this creature, Dante briefly explores the third layer of the third layer - which is where the Usurers, those who were violent against the arts, are forced to sit under the rains of fire with purses around their neck. As none of these Usurers wishes to talk with him, Dante returns to Virgil and finds that he has hired the services of the beast Geryon to take the two travelers on his back and transport them to the eighth circle using his massive wings.
This circle is named Malebolge and is a massive pit divided into ten "pouches" in which those who have committed various types of "ordinary fraud" are punished. In the first pouch, pimps, seducers, and similar users of women are forced to run from one side to the other by demons who beat them with whips. While examining this pouch, Dante finds a man from his homeland who sold his sister and Jason (who is within this pouch for abandoning Medea at the end of his quest for the Golden Fleece). The two travelers then travel to the second pouch - where flatterers are thrown into a pit filled with excrement - but look at it for only a brief moment before travelling to the third pouch.
Even before staring into it, Dante figures out that this pouch is for the Simoniacs (or those who used their wealth to "buy" pardons for their sins) and decries this action. Upon looking inside, Dante finds that the simoniacs within the pit are stuck within small chasms - with only their feet sticking out for flames to constantly scorch. One of these souls is Pope Nicholas III, who initially thinks that Dante is Boniface before Dante corrects him. Nicholas then mourns his sins and casts shade at "even worse sinners" that still lurk on Earth (presumably, popes even more simoniacal than him). Dante refuses to show even the slightest amount of pity for Nicholas and then rants against corrupt churchmen before travelling with Dante to the fourth pouch.
Sitting within the fourth pouch is a line of people who constantly walk in a circle. Though it seems as though the souls within this pouch are getting it easy, Dante notices that the bodies of each have been wrenched around so that their heads are wrenched completely around. This is the punishment of astrologers, diviners, magicians, and other similar professions. All of these souls tried to look forwards into time and as such have been punished by being made to always look backwards. One of these souls is a sorcerer named Manto, which reminds Virgil of the founding of Mantua - which he recollects before departing with Virgil for the fifth pouch.
This pouch is a large pit filled almost completely with jet-black tar. While Dante is looking into the depths of the pit, he is nearly dragged by a demon into the depths of the pit but is rescued by Virgil. Virgil then negotiates with these demons (who are dubbed the Malabranche) and their leader Malacoda to give them passage through the fifth pouch. Though Malacoda is initially reluctant to do this, he agrees and gives them a phalanx of Malabranche to accompany them. The fifth pouch is the domain of the barterers (or bribers) who are skewered by the Malabranche whenever they are not within the tar. While Virgil speaks with one of these barterers, its soul is skewered by a Malabranche. While speaking with Dante and Virgil, this soul then jumps into the pit of tar and is closely followed by several Malabranche - who all become stuck in the tar. During this confusion, Virgil and Dante leave - and soon start running as the Malabranche fly after them. Fortunately, they are able to escape the clutches of the Malabranche and reach the sixth pouch.
In the sixth pouch, Hypocritical souls are forced to walk while wearing extremely heavy lead-lined clothes. All of these sinners walk over one particular Hypocrite, Caiaphas - the high priest who ordered the execution of Christ. From the Hypocrites, Dante and Virgil learn a route to progress further through Hell (something the Malabranche gave a false answer to) and leave for the seventh pouch. This is a somewhat treacherous voyage, with a collapsed bridge forcing Dante and Virgil to clamber up rocks like mountain goats.
Upon reaching the seventh pouch, Dante discovers that it is filled with hideous serpents that chase the souls of thieves across the pouch. When a thief is bitten by one of the serpents, their body catches alight and instantly reforms from this ash. While staring into the pit, Dante is recognized by a Tuscan thief named Vanni Fucci and is disgusted with the way that Dante stares at him. As such, he gives a prophecy about the downfall of Dante's political allies (the White Guelphs). Fucci then curses God and he is mobbed by serpents for this. Deeper within the pit, Dante and Virgil watch as the soul of a thief is merged with the soul of a massive serpentine creature while another thief swaps forms with a serpent after being bitten by the serpent in the stomach. After mocking the city of Florence for the large amount of its citizens represented in the seventh pouch, Dante leaves with Virgil for the eighth pouch.
In the eighth pouch, fraudsters burn in a singular massive flame. In one of these flames is the warrior Ulysses, whom Virgil speaks with (as he is worried that the ancient warrior will take offence to Dante's modern Latin) and learns that Ulysses died while trying to travel through the western edge of the Mediterranean (a border which supposedly killed all voyagers who sailed past it) when a great storm sunk his ship. While traversing deeper into the pouch, the two travelers are accosted by a Romagnan named Guido da Montefeltro. After learning the state of his homeland, Montefeltro reveals how he ended up in Hell. In life, Montefeltro was a Ghibelline who briefly converted to Franciscianism before being persuaded by Pope Boniface VIII to switch to his side and then promised to give Montefeltro absolution in advance. Upon his death, Montefeltro was brought by a demon to Minos - who found him guilty of fraudulent counsel and sent him to the eighth pouch. After hearing this, Dante and Virgil progress to the ninth pouch.
Lurking within the ninth pouch is a line of those who sow scandal and division perpetually circling its confines as they are cut open by a demon holding a sword. While examining this circle, Dante and Virgil find the Prophet Muhammad amongst the ranks alongside various Italians that warn that one Fra Dolcino will soon be joining them and a beheaded soul that, in life, advised a king to rebel against his father. Though Virgil warns Dante that they will soon have to leave the pouch, Dante stays long enough to speak with one of his ancestors before leaving with Dante for the tenth pouch.
This pouch is the domain of the falsifiers and is split into four. In the first layer, alchemists and other falsifiers of metals lay huddled in dirty rags with scabs covering their bodies. While examining this layer, Dante finds two Italian alchemists named Griffolino of Arezzo and Capocchio and hears how they ended up in this circle. In the second layer, those who spread lies about other people tear each other apart with their own teeth. Lurking within this layer are several members of other layers (such as falsifiers of coins and liars), which includes many historical figures who spread lies. Dante listens to the various petty disagreements of these liars and is reprimanded by Virgil for doing so.
At the very center of Malebolge is a massive pit which serves as the border between the eighth and ninth circles and which is used as a prison for the fallen Titans - including Nimrod (whom speaks complete gibberish due to his participation in the building of the Tower of Babel) and Antaeus, whom Virgil convinces to lead them into the ninth circle. As such, Antaeus puts the two travelers in the palm of his hand and places them within the ninth circle.
This land (which is made up of a frozen lake called Cocytus in which its sinners are all buried in) is the domain of the traitors and, like the seventh and eighth circles before it, is split into several segments. In the first segment of Cocytus (dubbed Caina) those who were traitorous to their country and family are frozen up to their heads. While walking through Cocytus, Dante accidentally kicks an Italian traitor in the face and then, upon realizing who he is, deliberately rips some of his hair out when this traitor does not name himself. The second segment (Antenora) is the domain of those who betrayed their political allies or homeland. While walking through it, Dante sees one of these sinners trying to gnaw on the other's head. When Dante asks these sinners who they are, the gnawing one stops gnawing and explains that he is Count Ugolino and his victim is Archbishop Ruggieri. According to him, the archbishop threw him and his sons into jail and forced him to eat their bodies.
The third segment (dubbed Ptolomea) is the domain of those who betrayed their guests, who are frozen in the river almost completely with only their faces sticking out of Cocytus. While looking at these souls, Dante realizes that two of them are still alive. It is revealed that these two were so evil that their souls were dragged to hell and their bodies inhabited by demons to give them the appearance of still being alive. The fourth segment of the ninth layer of Hell (or the bottom layer of Hell, which is named Judecca) is the domain of those who were traitorous to their benefactors - the most vile of all sins. The bodies of these traitorous souls are frozen completely in the ice and is home to the massive and repugnant form of the ruler of Hell. In the three mouths of this figure are the three most repugnant sinners of all - Judas Iscariot, Brutus, and Cassius. As the ruler of Hell chews on these sinners, his massive wings keep the waters of Cocytus frozen.
Now that Virgil and Dante have seen every corner of Hell, they must depart from this domain. To do so, Virgil and Dante climb the body of the Beast. This body runs through the Earth completely - with the initial impact of Lucifer's body actually changing the geography of Earth itself. Once he climbs the totality of the Beast's body, Dante on the complete opposite side of Earth from where he entered Hell from.
Purgatorio[]
Once outside of Hell, Dante floats towards Purgatory. This is the realm in which souls are cleansed before they can enter Heaven. While approaching the entrance to Purgatory, Dante and Virgil are met by a soul named Cato who asks if the souls in Hell are now allowed to enter Purgatory. Virgil explains Dante's quest before promising to speak with Cato's wife (who is within Limbo). Once Cato leaves and the two travelers enter Purgatory, Virgil cleanses Dante of the filth that has covered his body from his journey through Hell. While on this shore, Virgil and Dante see a boat piloted by an angel that brings souls into Purgatory. The two travelers are soon found by the souls entering into Purgatory, with Dante being recognized by one of the souls (an old friend by the name of Casella) and speaks with him before he is chastised by Cato for loitering.
While walking towards the mountain that makes up most of Purgatory, Dante realizes that Virgil does not have a shadow. This starts a debate on the nature of knowledge itself that lasts until the two travelers reach the base of the mountain. While there, the travelers are met by a group of souls entering into this mountain. Dante meets one of the souls, an excommunicated man who has been allowed to enter into Purgatory and cleanse himself before entering into Heaven as he is repentant of his sins in life. This man asks Dante to tell his daughter of his fate.
While following the souls entering Purgatory, Dante and Virgil cross from the first terrace to the second by clambering up the mountain on hands and knees. Once on the second terrace, the two travelers watch over the land below them. While doing this, Dante notices an old friend of his named Belacqua. Belacqua explains that, as he waited until his deathbed to repent for his sins, he has to stay on the second terrace for the entire span of his life before he can progress through Purgatory and into Heaven. While clambering higher and higher up the second terrace, the two find a group of souls who died violently and were unable to have a final confession because of it.
Once Dante and Virgil leave this crowd and discuss Virgil's beliefs on prayer, they begin climbing up the mountain once again. While climbing, the two are found by a soul named Sordello who comes from Mantua - the same place that Virgil did. The friendship between the two over their place of birth makes Dante think about the fragmented state that Italy is within and he rallies against the various political factions and influential families that have caused this. Once Dante finishes his tirade, Virgil reveals his fate to Sordello - who accepts the influential poet despite the gates of Heaven being closed to him. Sordello reveals that there is no one true path through the rest of Purgatory and that climbing the mountain at night is forbidden. As such, Sordello leads the two to the side of a cliff that hangs above a verdant valley where the two travelers can spend the night in peace. Underneath the travelers are various historical figures (such as King Henry, Emperor Rudolph, and Ottakar) who spent most of their time on worldly matters instead of spiritual matters.
As night falls in Purgatory, two angels wielding broken swords and wearing bright green garments descend to the valley. According to Sordello, these angels patrol the entirety of Purgatory to keep the souls within it safe from various threats - such as a serpent who roams Purgatory and tries to tempt souls. Night soon becomes morning and Dante meets with an old friend named Nino while the angels find the serpent and scare it away. After dreaming of being carried by a golden eagle, Dante wakes up to find that he and Virgil have entered Purgatory proper - with Dante being carried by a woman named Lucia throughout the night. Virgil tells an angel that Beatrice has sent the two of them and is let in alongside Dante. While entering Purgatory, Dante climbs up three large steps and is marked with seven "P"s by the angel using the tip of its sword - with Dante having to wash these off as he traverses through Purgatory - before opening the gates to Purgatory.
After passing through the gates and walking up the mountain for some time, Dante and Virgil rest on a deserted road built on the side of Purgatory's mountain and examine various religious figures carved into the side of the mountain. They soon notice various bent figures with stones tied around them as penance for the sin of pride climbing the mountain nearby them. Virgil questions these souls (which includes a Tuscan named Omberto Aldobrandesco, the artist Oderisi, and a politician named Provenzan) and learns of an easier route to traverse.
While climbing up this route, Dante and Virgil notice more religious and mythical figures carved onto the mountainside (including Nimrod, whom they met in Hell) before an angel guides them - erasing the first "p" on Dante's forehead while doing so, which makes Dante's journey through Purgatory easier. While climbing up another ledge, the two travelers hear voices calling out with generosity (part of the penance for envy) and a group of formerly envious souls dressed in rags and with their eyes sewed shut. Dante finds a Sienese woman named Sapia who took great pleasure at the deaths of her people's Florentine enemies amongst these souls along with two rival Italian political figures. Once Dante and Virgil depart from these figures, they hear the voices in the air recounting ancient examples of envy. Virgil explains that God strikes down the envious as they focus on earthly matters instead of the heavens.
While climbing further and further up the mountain, the two travelers are joined by a generous angel who blesses them and makes the stairs less steep than before. Once the angel departs, Virgil discusses envy in more detail - he believes that the envious view sharing as reducing what they own instead of increasing the good within one's soul. Upon reaching the next level of Purgatory, Dante has visions of Jesus' discovery and the near-execution of Pisistratus before seeing a thick cloud of smoke. Virgil and Dante cross through this cloud and are greeted by various souls seeking penance for wrath. Amongst these souls are a Lombard courtier, who explains his beliefs on astrology and free will at length. Once outside of the cloud of smoke, Dante has visions of historical examples of wrath before an angel removes another one of the "p"s from his forehead.
Before the two travelers can reach the circle of sloth, night falls and they are forced to stop climbing. While waiting for the night to pass, Virgil discusses his views on the nature of sin itself (which he believes comes from misguided mind-love) and is split into three categories. Virgil and Dante have already crossed through the sins based on love of people's suffering and are about to enter into the domain of those sins whose practitioners fail to pursue God and become entranced with worldly concerns. Virgil and Dante have a somewhat lengthy discussion on love and its motives before noticing a crowd of penitent souls running nearby while yelling about zeal. As dawn breaks, Dante dreams of being nearly taken by a siren before being rescued by Virgil and an unknown woman. Shortly after Dante awakens from this dream, an angel removes another one of the "p"s from his head. The travelers then progress to the next level of Purgatory.
Dante and Virgil find souls seeking penance for avarice and coveting that which they did not own, which involves them lying prostrate on the ground while reciting Psalm 119. Amongst these souls is Pope Adrian, who explains the meaning of this punishment (as they never looked to Heaven while alive, they have to stay earthbound through their penance). While progressing further through Purgatory, Dante hears someone reciting examples of poverty. He finds that this voice belongs to Hugh Capet, who gives prophecies about his descendants and laments their greed. Having left both souls, Dante and Virgil feel the mountain shudder violently as every soul on it calls out "Gloria in excelsis Deo!". According to the nearby soul of Statius, this is what happens when a soul chooses to depart Purgatory for Heaven. Statius then discusses his adoration Virgil's life and works before becoming the guide to him and Dante.
Shortly after this, Dante is found by an angel and has the sin of covetousness removed from his body. While ascending along with the two travelers, Statius reveals that he is seeking penance for his prodigality and that he was a closet Christian in life (largely due to Virgil's poetry). The three travelers come across a tree covered in fragrant fruits which recounts historical and religious examples of temperance. As the three travelers depart from this tree, they are beset upon by a group of penitent gluttons. Amongst them is an old friend of Dante's by the name of Forese, who explains that the tree is part of the penance for gluttons, and the drunken poet Bonagiunta of Lucca. Once the three travelers depart from these souls, they find a second tree which came from the tree carrying the forbidden fruit that tempted Adam and Eve.
After leaving these souls, the three travelers walk up a very steep stairway that requires them to walk single-file. While doing so, they discuss how the souls in Purgatory are starving even though they do not need food and then discuss the true nature of souls and how they and the body are formed. Once this discussion ends, the three travelers reach the rim of blazing fire that borders the upper levels of Purgatory - through which lustful souls pass through as part of their penance, being split in their penance between homosexuality and heterosexuality and briefly kissing (showing restrained romance). Upon seeing Dante, some of the souls are perplexed that a living man is amongst them. Before Dante can explain what he is doing in Purgatory, he is distracted with the sights of this barrier and recognizes two poets crossing into the upper layers. Though Dante is hesitant to cross through the flames, Virgil tells him that he will not be harmed by them. While passing through the flames, Dante finds that they are so incredibly hot that he would find a vat of boiling glass cooling. Despite this, he passes through them for Beatrice accompanied by Statius.
Once on the other side, Dante finds that it is getting close to night time. As such, the three travelers sleep through the night - with Dante dreaming of the Biblical Leah. Once Dante awakens, he is guided by Virgil to the top step of Purgatory. Once there, Virgil tells Dante that he cannot progress any further and that he will have to find another guide. From this, Dante emerges into a beautiful, verdant forest. He finds a beautiful woman singing and asks her where he is. This woman explains that he is in the Earthly Paradise (or the Garden of Eden) that humans once lived within before being cast out due to the original sin.
While Dante and the lady walk across a brook, they watch as a procession of angels, Graces, Virtues, and elders appears. Amongst this procession is Beatrice and a brilliant carriage. Dante turns towards Virgil and weeps at his loss. Beatrice notices this and chastises him for weeping in this place of joy. This only makes Dante weep even harder, which Beatrice says his grief for her loss and guilt for wavering into sin after her death. Beatrice also reveals that she organized Dante's journey through the afterlife as a tour of what happens to those who fall into sin completely. Driven by grief, Dante confesses to being distracted by mere things of here and now and then falls into silence. He is grabbed by the lady who introduced him to the Garden (whose name is Matilda) and places him in the water of the River Lethe before he joins Beatrice and her fellow women. While being followed by Statius, the group wanders to a nearby tree - which is made into a beautiful blossom after the carriage is attached to it. Dante is then lulled to sleep with a beautiful hymn.
Upon being awakened by Matilda, Dante finds Beatrice, her women, and her chariot sitting by the blossoming tree while the rest of the procession sings while in the air. On Beatrice's orders, Dante writes this down and then watches as an eagle swoops onto the carriage, a vixen inside of it, and a dragon emerge from the ground of the Garden to attack the carriage. While the carriage repairs itself, various heads emerge from it along with a scantily dressed woman and a giant. The two embrace before the giant beats the woman for being distracted by Dante before leaving into the woods. All of this represents the Church and its qualms. Beatrice claims that the Church will soon have an heir that will end its qualms on Earth. Once the two finish discussing this, Dante and Statius are brought to the river Eunoe - which they drink from - before leaving the Garden.
Paradiso[]
Shortly after Easter Sunday, Dante and Beatrice cross into the heavens through a form of heavenly gravity which lets their boat ascend into the stars. While doing so, Dante calls upon Apollo before staring into the noonday sun with Beatrice. The first object within the heavens that the two travel to is the Moon, the "closest star to Earth". Shortly after arriving the Moon, Dante and Beatrice discuss the origins of the mysterious markings on the Moon - which Dante claims is due to variations in surface density or the mark of Cain while Beatrice claims that it is due to different parts of the Moon reflecting the light of the Sun in different ways. This discussion is interrupted when Dante notices various spectral faces nearby him. Beatrice reveals that these souls were inconstant in life and as such are ephemeral in the afterlife. Dante speaks with one of these souls, a former nun named Piccarda, who explains that she is happy to be in this circle as she is in tune with God's wishes.
Once Piccarda departs, Dante is confused that souls live in the stars (as described by Plato and similar thinkers) instead of in a singular Heaven. According to Beatrice, souls live in the highest part of the heavens but appear in the lower layers to signify the level of their piety in life. Beatrice then explains why people are placed in lower circles for lack of piety even if that lack of piety is caused by external forces - it is a matter of internal will. Those who resist this force to the death or flee are higher than those who leave the Faith, but this moral strength is a somewhat rare virtue. As God's light reflects off Beatrice and onto Dante, she explains how the Church can release people from monastic vows if they are unbreakable. Beatrice explains that only the particulars of the vow to God is shifted. With this explanation finished, Dante and Beatrice ascend to the next part of Heaven.
This is Mercury, the object closest to the Sun. Though not commonly visible from Earth, it is where ambitious souls lurk. Once Dante emerges onto Mercury, he is surrounded by a thousand souls and begins talking with one of them. This soul is revealed to be the Roman emperor Justinian, who explains how he reformed Roman law and was converted to supporting Christianity by the bishop Agapetus. He also discusses the current "successors" to the Roman throne, the Guelphs and Ghibellines, and shows disdain for both of them. After finishing this discussion, Justinian and the other souls then depart. Once they leave, Dante asks Beatrice if God's supposed vengeance for the Crucifixion of Jesus was just. Beatrice explains that Jesus' creation was penance for the original sin of humanity and that the crucifixion was the punishment for all of humanity's sin. Thus, the destruction of Jerusalem is viewed as just vengeance. When Dante questions why God chose this meaning, Beatrice claimed that this was because humanity lost the perfect dignity that was placed within it by God and that they could not find forgiveness for their sin on their own. Along with this, Beatrice claims that human souls are separate from the four elements of all matter that decay and collapse.
With this discussion finished, Dante and Beatrice ascend to the sphere of Venus. Upon arriving, Dante is met by the soul of his close friend Charles Mantel. Mantel discusses the declining character of his family, leaving Dante to ask about the varying natures of the human character. Martel explains that, to keep the universe from devolving into meaningless chaos, God places their souls into specific destinies. Though people have the ability to veer from these destinies, Mantel claims that this only brings unhappiness to those who do not follow these paths. Dante is then visited by two souls named Cunizza and Folco who explain that souls in Heaven do not ruminate on their past mistakes, as God's providence allows them to see their mistakes as simply a part of God's plans for them.
With their business on Venus finished, Dante and Beatrice travel to the next sphere - the Sun, which Dante finds himself unable to describe. They are joined by various souls who take the form of flares of light, with the soul of Thomas Aquinas being amongst them. Also present are the souls of various theological figures - such as Boethius, the Venerable Bede, King Solomon, Gratian, Peter Lombard, and Richard of St. Victor. While surrounded by these souls, Dante reminisces on the various spurious efforts of the human mind which do not focus on the pursuit of God before questioning Aquinas about his fellow souls. As such, Aquinas discusses the life of St. Francis of Assisi (whom he praises even though he was an acolyte of the Dominican Order) and Saint Dominic - who Aquinas says worked towards a singular end, even if some of their followers strayed from this end. They are then joined by another soul (that of St. Bonaventure) who elaborates on the life of Dominic and the straying of his followers. They are soon joined by another circle of souls, who chant praises to the Holy Trinity while explaining the difference between God and Nature's creations. Once Aquinas finishes with his explanations, King Solomon explains that the souls in Heaven will be reunited with their bodies after the return of Christ.
With this out of the way, Dante and Beatrice rise to the sphere of Mars. Once on Mars, the two are found by a ring of dazzling light which soon morphs into a brilliantly ruby-studded cross, from which the nigh-indescribable form of Christ emerges alongside an indecipherable (to Dante) hymn. Once the hymns finish, another soul falls from the sky and reveals itself to be the soul of Dante's great-great-grandfather, the martyr Cacciaguida. Cacciaguida reminisces on Florence and briefly talking about his death before, due to Dante's somewhat humorous pleadings, resuming to talk about Florence before Dante asks his ancestor about his future. Cacciaguida reveals that Dante will be exiled from his homeland and have to take unsavory company who he will meet with. Though Dante is somewhat hesitant to write about his own future, he agrees to do so. Once Beatrice calms Dante down about his future, Cacciaguida explains how the cross on Mars is made of the souls of various warriors.
Once Cacciaguida finishes his explanation, Beatrice and Dante travel to the sphere of Jupiter - the realm of just souls. While floating through this planet, Dante watches as stars in the sky spell out "DILIGITE IUSTITIAM QUI IUDICATIS TERRAM" (or "LOVE JUSTICE, YOU WHO JUDGE THE EARTH") upon which various souls lurk. As Dante watches over these souls, a gleaming eagle that represents the various souls of the just on Jupiter flies towards Dante. Dante questions this eagle about divine justice, leading the eagle to explain that divine justice is something beyond complete understanding that all humans still have some knowledge of it and Christ. Even those souls who have never read from or heard readings of the Bible are aware of Christ and are treated much better than those who use the name of Christ for their own purposes, which include various European leaders that the eagle names. The eagle then has Dante examine its eye, in which Dante finds the souls of various representatives of justice (such as King David, Trajan, Rhipeus, and Emperor Constantine). Dante is confused that Trajan and Rhipeus can be found within the eagle, with the eagle explaining that God himself baptized Trajan before his death while God opened Rhipeus' eyes to belief while he was alive.
Once the eagle's explanations are finished, Dante and Beatrice ascend to the sphere of Saturn. While within this sphere, Beatrice's beauty becomes so powerful that it could completely destroy Dante with a simple smile. While examining Saturn, Dante finds a massive golden ladder which souls who engaged in a completely (or at least largely) ascetic life descend. Dante stops one of these souls and tries to ask it about predestination. When Dante finds he cannot understand this soul, he asks it to identify itself and learns it is the monk Peter Damian, who laments at the state of his successors - who have given up piety for lives of opulence. This leads the other souls to cry out in lament, which perturbs Dante until he is comforted by Beatrice. Dante then finds the soul of St. Benedict - who laments that the Benedictine monks have neglected his Rule of poverty.
With this explanation finished, Dante ascends the ladder after being assured by Beatrice and ascends into the firmament. He finds his own star sign (that of Gemini) and thanks it for the Geminical talents he has used so far before Beatrice draws his eye towards Earth - letting him see how small Earth is compared to the other heavenly spheres. He also sees the soul of the Virgin Mary and the angel Gabriel before Beatrice calls down the soul of St. Peter to test Dante's faith. By showing the substance of his supernatural and theological faith, Dante is able to pass this test. Once this test finishes, Dante's hope of seeing Heaven is then examined by the soul of St. James. After doing so, the soul temporarily blinds Dante and questions him about his pursuit of God. Once Dante shows the strength and meaning of this pursuit, his sight is restored - letting Dante see that the soul of Adam has joined the gathering of souls around him. Dante then questions Adam, who explains how long he lived in the Garden of Eden (six hours, compared to the centuries that he spent on Earth and in Hell), the root of God's anger towards him (his and Eve's disobedience), and that the language he spoke in the Garden was an ancient and now-extinct tongue.
Once this explanation finishes, the souls of Heaven erupt into rapturous song before St. Peter silences them by giving a tirade against corrupt popes and specifically the current corrupt pope - Boniface VIII - along with the corruption of the Church by secularism. After Peter tells Dante to write everything he has seen in the afterlife down, Beatrice and Dante travel to the ninth sphere of Heaven - Primum Mobile, a sphere that only exists in the mind of God.
While looking into Beatrice's eyes, Dante sees a representation of the nine spheres of Heaven revolving around God within one of her eyes. This representation also serves as a representation of God's power throughout the Heavens and shows that, though the Primum Mobile is seemingly the smallest of the spheres, it is actually the one that "most loves and knows". Once Dante realizes this, Beatrice explains the distribution of angels throughout Heaven, which are split into three groups of three. Beatrice further explains that the angels were one of God's first creations, along with God's reasonings for creating existence. Beatrice also explains how man's fall was tied to the fall of Satan for arrogance and also explains that angels do not have functioning memories as their sight never wavers from God. Beatrice ends this theological monologue by explaining that speculation in the matters of God is somewhat bad but not as bad as purposefully twisting God's words to suit your own purposes. The spheres then fade from Beatrice's eye as the two have travelled from the Primum Mobile to the Empyrean - the highest sphere and the domain of angels and saints.
Upon arriving in the Empyrean, Dante is enveloped in brilliant, heavenly light before drinking from a river made from the same light after Beatrice tells him to do so. Upon doing so, Dante can see the forms of the angels and saints around him - who form a giant white rose in the sky while angels fly amongst them and minister peace and love to them. When Dante turns to question Beatrice, he finds that she has returned to her place within the Empyrean and that the soul of St. Bernard of Clairvaux has taken her place. Bernard shows Dante that the Virgin Mary is within the furthest part of the rose and that she is surrounded by almost flame-light brightness and jubilant angels. Bernard then gives a tour of the rose of the Empyrean and explains that the souls within it are split between those died while Christ hadn't been born and those who died either while Christ was alive or after he died. Bernard also reveals that children who died before they could show the strength of their will are also within the rose, alongside various other biblical and historical figures. With this over, Dante looks unto the form of God after the Virgin Mary grants him the strength to look upon God directly. Unfortunately for Dante, God's brilliance is so great that he is completely unprepared to remember or even truly see it. Dante describes God's brilliance as being like the pages of an extremely massive book that had been scattered across the Heavens being reunited into one volume. Along with this, Dante perceives three revolving spheres which are likely a manifestation of the metaphysical planes Dante has travelled through. With this, Dante's desire is satisfied and the poem ends somewhat abruptly.
Works discussing "The Comedìa"[]
Non-fiction[]
- The Literature Book, in which The Comedìa is put forth as the main example of the postclassical epic. This volume claims that it is a somewhat unconventional example of the postclassical epic (due to its narrator being woven into the narrative, the vernacular language it uses (Tuscan instead of the traditional Latin), and its combination of classical and contemporary symbolism) that was heavily inspired by Dante's political career.
Notable translations[]
- Allen Mandelbaum's English translation (1980-84)
See also[]
| Title | Author | Release date | Significance |
|---|---|---|---|
| Paradise Lost | John Milton | 1666 | A major metaphysical Christian poem |
| Nuova Cronica | Giovanni Villani, Matteo Villani, and Filippo Villani | written 1300-1364 | A historical work on Florence written around the same time as this poem |
| On the City of God Against the Pagans | Augustine of Hippo | 426 | A work of philosophy that possibly inspired The Divine Comedy |
| The Decameron | Giovanni Boccaccio | ~1370 | Another major work of Medieval Italian literature |
| Orlando Furioso | Ludovico Ariosto | 1516 | Another Italian epic poem |
| The Canterbury Tales | Geoffrey Chaucer | 1400 (approx.) | A major poetical work of the 14th century |
| The Pilgrim's Progress from This World, to That Which Is to Come | John Bunyan | 1678 | A major metaphysical Christian work |
| On the Consolation of Philosophy | Boethius | 524 | A work which possibly inspired this work |
| Aeneid | Virgil | 19 BC | Virgil's most well-known work |
| Confessions | Augustine of Hippo | ~400 | A work similarly inspired by Virgil |
| The Faerie Queene | Edmund Spenser | 1590, 1596 | A major postclassical epic poem |
| The Lusiads | Luís Vaz de Camões | 1572 | A major postclassical epic poem |
| The Waste Land | T.S. Eliot | 1922 | A major postclassical poetic work |
| The Red Room | August Strindberg | 1879 | A novel with somewhat similar themes |
Sources[]
- Wikipedia
- Goodreads